Supply chain ethics: who made your panels and battery?
Balanced, plain-English summary. Last reviewed October 2026. We separate what is documented from what is disputed or unsupported.
The short version
- Documented: a large share of the world's solar-grade polysilicon (the main material in about 95% of panels) has come from Xinjiang, China, where researchers have documented state-run "labour transfer" programmes that they describe as forced labour.
- Disputed: China's government says these programmes are voluntary, legal and help reduce poverty.
- Documented: children have been found working in cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Cobalt is used in some batteries.
- Not supported by evidence we found: claims that children mine quartz or make polysilicon for solar panels.
Forced labour and polysilicon
What researchers found (documented) - In 2021, Sheffield Hallam University's report In Broad Daylight found that Xinjiang made about 45% of the world's solar-grade polysilicon in 2020. It said all polysilicon makers in the region took part in state labour transfers, or bought from suppliers who did. It named 11 companies taking part and 90 companies whose supply chains were affected. - Its 2023 follow-up, Over-Exposed, found Xinjiang's share fell to about 35% in 2022, with an expected 28–32% in later years. Production grew elsewhere in China instead. - Note: a smaller share doesn't mean less output. Total production has grown fast, so Xinjiang's tonnage may not have fallen. We found no Sheffield Hallam figure for 2025–26.
China's position (disputed) - The Chinese government says these programmes follow Chinese law, are voluntary and reduce poverty. Its own 2020 report says 2.6 million people were placed in jobs through them (Sheffield Hallam summary).
What different governments are doing
| Where | Law or action | What it does |
|---|---|---|
| USA | Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act (UFLPA), June 2022 | Assumes goods made wholly or partly in Xinjiang involve forced labour unless the importer proves otherwise. US Customs and Border Protection stopped thousands of solar shipments for checks after June 2022 (Over-Exposed, 2023) |
| EU | Forced Labour Regulation (EU) 2024/3015 | Bans products made with forced labour from being sold in or exported from the EU, from 14 December 2027. It covers every country, not just China. Guidance and a risk database were launched in June 2026 |
| EU | Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) | Adopted in 2024, but weakened by the 2025–26 "Omnibus" changes. These narrowed checks mainly to direct suppliers and delayed the deadline (reported as 2028) |
| UK | Modern Slavery Act 2015, section 54 | Large firms (£36m+ turnover) must publish a yearly statement on what they do about slavery. There's no import ban like the USA's or the EU's |
| UK | Great British Energy | The GBE Act includes a duty to keep forced labour out of its supply chains. It set up an ethical supply chain advisory group in June 2026. Its £20m Community Fund requires solar suppliers to be members of the Solar Stewardship Initiative or show equivalent proof. The government relaunched the Solar Taskforce on supply chains and is reviewing responsible business rules. A Parliament human rights committee (July 2025) warned against relying on SSI alone |
Child labour: documented vs claimed
- Documented: cobalt in the DRC. Amnesty International's 2016 report "This is what we die for" documented children working in dangerous small-scale cobalt mines. It cited about 40,000 child miners (a UNICEF estimate from 2014). Cobalt is used in NMC lithium batteries. Small-scale mines produce an estimated 15–30% of DRC cobalt (Solari Advisory summary).
- Good to know: many home batteries now use LFP (lithium iron phosphate) chemistry, which contains no cobalt. Ask your installer which type you're getting.
- Unsupported: we found no credible evidence of children mining quartz or making polysilicon for solar panels. The forced labour concerns in polysilicon involve adult workers in Xinjiang. If you see this claim, ask for the source.
What you can do
- Ask your installer where the panels and battery were made, and whether the maker can trace its polysilicon back to source.
- Look for makers with sites certified by the Solar Stewardship Initiative (SSI). It's an industry scheme run by Solar Energy UK and SolarPower Europe. It's useful, but critics say it isn't fully independent.
- Ask for an LFP battery if you want to avoid cobalt.
- Read the maker's Modern Slavery Statement. UK firms over £36m turnover must publish one.
General information only. We don't name individual companies as guilty or innocent.